Company Law Exam with Answers - 1887 Words

QUESTION 1 a. Define a promoter of a company. Explain and illustrate with decided cases his legal position in relation to a company. Though the certificate of incorporation is conclusive for purposes of incorporation, using decided cases, outline circumstances under which it could be withdrawn.(10marks) ANSWER Definition; A promoter is one who undertakes to form a company with reference to a given project and to set it going and who takes the necessary step to accomplish that purpose - A promoter is not an agent of the company he promotes, as it does not exist yet. At common law, he cannot be an agent of a non-existent principle. - A promoter is not a trustee of the company in formation as it does not exist yet. - The English courts have†¦show more content†¦When the charge chrysalises it fixes on the assets then owned by the company, catching any assets acquired up to that date, but missing any which have already been disposed of. Explain the similarities and differences be tween shares and debentures. (7marks) i. Similarities - A debenture is usually one of a series or class, which is similar to a class of shares. - Debentures, as well, as shares are long term investments in the company and re transferable in the same manner. - Debentures and shares may be issued in the same way through a prospectus issue ii. Differences - A shareholder is a member whereas a debenture holder is a creditor - A shareholder has an interest in the company but not in the company’s property. A debenture holder has no interest in the company but has an interest in the company’s property, which constitutes his security. - A shareholder can attend a meeting of the company and vote at the meeting whereas a debenture holder cannot - A shareholder cannot insure the company’s property where as a debenture holder can. - Interest on debenture must be paid even if the company doesn’t not make a profit and can, therefore, be paid out of capital. Dividends o n share are payable only if profits are made and cannot be paid out of capital. - A company can purchase its own debentures but cannot, as a general rule, purchase its own shares. - As a general rule, share cannot be issued at a discount, where as debentures may be issued at a discount.Show MoreRelatedI Believe My Father Was A Great Candidate For My Strong Tie1356 Words   |  6 Pagesme understand more about the CPA exam. I tried to think of questions that would answer all aspects of how the exam has helped him over his career. As a more mature professional I generated more in depth and reflective questions. After generating these questions, I confirmed our location for the in person interview. I hoped that he would describe the way in which the exam has transformed over the years, and how the workplace uses the certification. He took the exam approximately 20 years ago in 1994Read MoreFinal Exam1137 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿BUSINESS LAW FINAL EXAM This is a take-home exam. The exam is to be handed out on July 26, 2012 and returned on July 31, 2012 on the final exam time. The group leader will assign each group member a question and each group member will answer the question and return the answer to the group leader. The group leader will grade each member in terms of cooperation and totality of the answer. The group leader will submit a final draft on exam date (July 31, 2012). The final draft must be done inRead MoreEssay on Mgt 520 Final Exam Study1408 Words   |  6 PagesMGMT520 Final Exam Study Guide Finals open on Saturday April 20  at 12:01 a.m. MT (Saturday morning) Finals close on Thursday April 25 at 11:59 p.m. MT (Thursday night) PLEASE DON’T WAIT TILL THE LAST MINUTE – THE SYSTEM IS BUSY AND MAY SLOW DOWN AND ANYTHING CAN HAPPEN. YOU MAY WANT TO PRINT THIS GUIDE. 1. The final exam is open book, open notes. The maximum time you can spend in the exam is 3 hours, 30 minutes. If you have not clicked the Submit For Grade button by then, you will be automaticallyRead MoreThe Pre Licensing Course Exam1692 Words   |  7 Pagespre-licensing course exam within the acceptable margin which means I answered at least 80% of the questions correctly. Now, on to the state exam. It is a 115 question-multiple choice test with a four hour time frame. 5 of the questions are dummies and will not be scored. You must answer correctly 82 of the 110 questions or score at least 75%. The instructor stressed to all of us in the class to apply immediately to The North Carolina Real Estate Commission to take the state real estate exam after we finishedRead MoreHrm 593 Final Exam Answers1272 Words   |  6 PagesHRM 593 Final Exam Answers http://www.homework-bank.com/downloads/hrm-593-final-exam-answers/ For Any Information or Any Class Which you did not find on Our Website, Just Hit US Email On below address Email Address: hworkbank@gmail.com Visit Our Website: http://www.homework-bank.com/ HRM 593 Final Exam Answers 1.(TCO A) Alice Jones was employed as a clerk-typist by a company. She requested and was refused a vacation day. The employer’s refusal was based on her failure to submit the requestRead MoreHum 112 Week 8 Assignment 2 – Project Paper1717 Words   |  7 Pagespaper (750-1,000 words) that responds to each of the items described in the topic. For the topic you choose: 1. Support your ideas with specific, illustrative examples. If there are questions or points associated with your chosen topic, be sure to answer all of the listed questions and address all of the items in that topic. If your topic asks you to do several things related to the topic, be sure to do each of the things listed. 2. While some of the topics tend to lend themselves toward particularRead MoreAccounting1024 Words   |  5 PagesQuestion 1:   * Proficient-level:   * There are several important functions performed in an organization, among which accounting is one of them. Define the accounting function and discuss how it differs from double-entry bookkeeping. Answer: According to the Dictionary of Accounting Terms, Accounting is defined as a one step process of recording, measuring, interpreting and communicating financial data by preparing financial statements in order to reflect financial condition and operatingRead MoreOutline Of A Application Of Tests1395 Words   |  6 Pagesbecause of Chinese English educational services companies’ prediction on the test questions, which allowed their student clients to get to know the questions that would appear in the exam ahead. This is so far the only speculation that makes sense. It is widely known that standard tests including IELTS and TOEFL, IELTS’s American counterpart, and some other institution admission tests like GRE and GMAT, are all based on gigantic question pools. On each exam day, sponsors of the tests select a specificRead MoreMy Assessment On Business Ethics Online Discussion On Board1504 Words   |  7 Pagesthinking is every Company or origination have monitorin g system to keep looking what s going on inside the work place and how to manage it. my assessment based on three topics ,behavioral ethics, bounded ethicality, conflict of interest Ethics behavior means a person have honesty fairness and equity. Diversity and rights of individuals and groups of people. These are my chose one and write on details what is that and how they affect our daily live. Business ethics show how companies and big organizationRead MoreMgmt 410 Final Exam 100% Correct Answers1204 Words   |  5 PagesMGMT 410 Final Exam 100% Correct Answers Follow Below Link to Download Tutorial https://homeworklance.com/downloads/mgmt-410-final-exam-100-correct-answers/ For More Information Visit Our Website ( https://homeworklance.com/ ) Email us At: Support@homeworklance.com or lancehomework@gmail.com FINAL EXAM TOPICS/CONCEPTS WITH RELATED QUESTIONS (10) 1. Human Resource Management and Strategic Planning – Identify and describe the Functions for Human Resources Management Define the concept

The Ethics Of Implicit Bias - 1097 Words

â€Å"You are a racist!† is a phrase that produces anxiety and triggers defensive mindsets, especially in work environments. Are you racist? Are you sexist? Are you bias? The answers to these questions might not be as stress-free to answer as you believe. Is it possible to be biased without the intent to be biased? Yes. There are two different types of biases; explicit bias and implicit bias. Explicit bias is when you consciously believe that certain races, genders, or religions are inferior. Implicit bias is when you think that you are unbiased but actually perform unconscious bias actions. Recognizing implicit bias is no easy undertaking which is why there have been theoretical attempts to avert implicit bias before it materializes. In the modern business world, unintentional prejudiced actions happen every day. In his paper â€Å"Context and the Ethics of Implicit Bias,† Michael Brownstein attempts to find a solution to these critical issues. In this essay, I will a ttempt to explain the theories behind the three ‘ethics of implicit bias’ and what problems arise in each situation according to Brownstein. I will then describe the advanced contextualist approach of Brownstein’s and why I consider his strategy to be the most effective in business settings through my own personal experiences. First I will go over the three strategies. In his paper â€Å"Context and the Ethics of Implicit Bias,† Michael Brownstein lists three approaches used to battle implicit bias. The three ‘ethics ofShow MoreRelatedHow Unethical Are You941 Words   |  4 Pagesreality, most of them fall woefully short of our inflated self-perception. This article explores four related sources of unintentional unethical decision making: 1. Implicit Prejudice: Bias that emerges from unconscious beliefs Most fair-minded people strive to judge others according to their merits. What makes implicit prejudice so common and persistent is that it is rooted in the fundamental mechanics of thought. Early on, we learn to associate things that commonly go together like rainRead MoreWhat Makes A Sense Of Encounters Or Experiences You Have Had?845 Words   |  4 Pagesnamely India, Japan, South Korea and Singapore. This probably has created an implicit association in my mind resulting in seeing Asians as a group and Europeans as a different group. In 2013, I made a 4 day trip to Dubai with family. That was my first trip to a Middle Eastern country. I could see that I felt a little out of place in that country in spite of my exposure and knowledge of Islam. I wonder if the implicit bias indicated in the result of Religion IAT is a reason for this feeling. I couldRead MoreDoes Racial Bias Affect The Lives Of Americans? Essay1593 Words   |  7 Pagesis why we must look at the causes of this racial bias and the effects. We cannot ignore the obvious disadvantages minorities face in America. When examining the ways that systemic racial bias affects the lives of Americans, it is important to first define what systemic racial bias actually is. For the purposes of this research paper, it is the tendency of racism to exist in a specified process. Throughout the past centuries, the presence of this bias changed significantly but not disappeared. In anRead MoreLeininger s Theory Of Culture Care Diversity1473 Words   |  6 Pageshealth outcomes per the patient’s culture. Though nursing students are receiving cultural education and the theory is necessary in a multicultural society, it may be too idealistic to function effectively in practice due to factors like racism and implicit bias. Maier-Lorentz (2008) noted that the nursing caree r force is predominantly Caucasian, which would mandate transcultural nursing in a multicultural society. However, Narayanasamy (1999) observed, â€Å"†¦nursing is not culturally free but culturally determinedRead MoreAca And Naadac Code Of Ethics971 Words   |  4 PagesACA and NAADAC Code of Ethics The ACA and NAADAC code of ethics will help the counselor with decision making. When the counselor is not sure how to act or say about an issue, it is important that she goes back and review the ACA and NAADAC code of ethics to make sure she is not being biased or discriminating a client in her practice. ACA and NAADAC is a guide that will help the counselor to reference. An ACA code that will help the counselor with multicultural code to use in the practice is A.2Read MoreFemales Of The Same Sexual Orientation1146 Words   |  5 Pagesrevealed an implicit in-group preconception that did not alter from that undertaken by women belonging to heterosexuality (Anselmi, et al, 2015). Woman of the same sexual orientation believed a more explicit in-group bias that was flexible compared to heterosexual women (Anselmi, et al, 2015). The Sabin, Riskind, Nosek, (2015) analysis had abundant effects, and their study was exclusive since they performed the implicit attitude test on healthcare providers (Sabin, et al, 2015). Implicit predispositionsRead MoreEssay On Non-Sided Perception1722 Words   |  7 Pagesdistracted. This is believed to change the attitude of an individual through bias thinking. Which is a factor that influences the change in attitude of individuals. As the expert has prior knowledge and has enough sufficient information to encourage the individual to change their attitude towards healthy eating. By providing them with non-bias messages. However, Forgas, 1995; Petty et al (1993) believe that when motives bias thinking, people actively try to generate favourable or unfavourable thoughtsRead MoreReconstructing Zwolinksi s Argument About Sweatshop Labor Essay1710 Words   |  7 Pagesavoid the techniques of persuasive advertising if the prospective advertisers intend to. 6. Reconstruct Washington Kelly’s argument about implicit bias and responsibility Washington Kelly put forward their insisting on that people should be responsible for their action from their implicit biases and the result caused by them. The harm caused by implicit biases in our social life among the interpersonal communications could not be ignored or shirked responsibility. The authors of this articleRead MoreEthics Are The Foundation Of An Organization Essay1988 Words   |  8 PagesEthics are the foundation of an organization. They are what guides an organizations employee behavior, policies and business decisions. The reputation and success of any organization is heavily tied to their ethical climate. It is important that organizations understand the correlation between acting ethically and organizational success. According to Kreitner Kinicki a staggering eighty four percent of Americans said that if price and quality was similar, they would change their allegiance to anRead MoreEmmission Essay Purpose1077 Words   |  5 Pagesprogram is a self-structur ed masters involving a dissertation and student designed track as is traditional to philosophy. It is my intent to structure my education around the topics of language and social philosophy such as feminism, global justice, implicit bias, etc. A focus not only supported through modules and reading groups, but a large faculty of shared interests and a socially conscious greater campus community. My undergraduate research largely centered around these topics as did my community work

Women’s contemporary work Free Essays

string(59) " member available to care for their children \(Kemp 247\)\." In the United States the labor market is strongly segregated according to sex: there are distinctive men’s and women’s occupations, jobs, and work tasks. Examples of women’s gender-non-traditional occupations are: engineer, manager of a private business, technician, police officer, auto mechanic. This work reveals some of these hidden aspects of women’s work. We will write a custom essay sample on Women’s contemporary work or any similar topic only for you Order Now In different ways, the studies reported here point to the pervasiveness of gender as an organizing principle in the world of employment. The first goal of this paper is to identify the systematic and institutionally created and reinforced dimensions of women’s work experience. The paper shows how gender affects the ways in which women are included in the labor force, the impact of work technologies, the threat of sexual harassment, government policy toward workers, the accessibility of labor organizations, the ability to protest collectively, and employed mothers’ attitudes toward their work lives as related to the division of labor at home. Today the majority of working-age women (18-64) are in the labor force. Single and divorced women tend to have higher labor force participation rates than married or older widowed women, but marital status is having a decreasing effect on women’s chances of working for pay. Although giving birth has traditionally been a reason for women to drop out of paid work and begin full-time homemaking, as the labor force participation rate for women has increased, the rate for mothers of young children has increased even faster. By 1983, half of all mothers of two-year-olds were in the labor force, and the proportion of women working increased with the age of the youngest child (Waldman 1983). Over their lifetimes, virtually all women will spend more years in the labor force than as child rearers. Most women, like most men, work as individuals for large or small companies and agencies; the family enterprise has virtually disappeared. The last holdout, the family farm, has largely gone under in the 1980s farm crisis. In 1983, 93 percent of employed women were wage and salary workers, working neither for themselves nor in family businesses, but for companies and businesses. Women workers are important to all industrial sectors. Women are more than 50 percent of the workers in retail trade; finance, insurance, and real estate; and services, particularly entertainment, health, hospitals, elementary and secondary education, welfare, and religion. Only in agriculture, mining, and construction are women less than 20 percent of the workers. Fox and Hess-Biber (1984) have summarized the extensive body of research on women workers: The occupations held by women are concentrated in the secondary labor market – jobs characterized by low wages, poor working conditions, little chance for advancement, lack of stability, and personalized employer/employee relations conducive to arbitrary and capricious work discipline. Although there has been some limited decline in sex segregation since 1970, the work world remains basically segregated into men’s jobs and women’s jobs. Even the slight decline appears less positive when examined closely: women tend to be able to enter previously male work when those occupations are declining in power and status and males are able to find better jobs elsewhere. On the whole, women have been able to increase their numbers in the labor force because the occupations and industries into which they are segregated have been expanding their need for labor. The barriers to occupational change are extensive, and involve both public and private patriarchy: childhood socialization of boys and girls to want different work, discriminatory practices of career counselors and employment firms, corporate personnel practices, harassment by male coworkers, failure of government to require affirmative action, reluctance of women to face the battles and hostilities that would result from their entering nontraditional work, child care responsibilities, and the refusal or inability of husbands to share housework and child care equally. Women’s wages tend to be lower than men’s even within the same occupational groupings, whether these are professional subspecialties or blue-collar work. On the whole, women and men do not work in the same occupations. The expansion of women’s paid work since World War II has been less in professional or highly paid technical work, and more in service occupations characterized by low pay and lack of promotion opportunities. In some cases the hierarchical relationship of men and women is built directly into the work structure of individuals. The relation of an executive secretary to an executive is that of an â€Å"office wife†. In other cases the hierarchy is occupational. Staff doctors, predominantly male, leave orders for hospital nurses (predominantly female) to carry out. Management of the labor force is a white male prerogative. Although low-level management positions may be filled by women, 96. 5 percent of persons making $50,000 or more in executive, administrative, or managerial positions in the 1980 census were males; 94. 9 percent were white males. Among members of professional specialties making $50,000 or more, 96 percent were male and 90 percent were white males (U. S. Census Bureau 1980). The higher-level managers not only manage the labor force, they also set and carry out the policies and programs of business, public administration, education, medicine, and other fields. Nor does government offer an antidote to disproportionate male power. In 1982, women were only 12 percent of state legislators and 6 percent of mayors; in 1983 they were only 4 percent of the U. S. Congress (U. S. Census Bureau 1985). Promotion tracks tend to require a flow of family work mothers generally lack. Promotion in skilled and semiskilled blue-collar jobs typically depends not on outside schooling but on on-the-job training. Skilled workers such as electricians and plumbers are trained through apprenticeships, many of which require nighttime classes for several years. This may contribute to the fact that women were only 7 percent of registered apprentices in 1991. Semiskilled workers learn their jobs often in training programs that take place in overtime. This means that women are excluded from such training because they are less likely to have a family member available to care for their children (Kemp 247). You read "Women’s contemporary work" in category "Papers" An increasing amount of control over women’s daily labor is held by employers, not husbands. Husbands may willingly accept, even urge, wives to engage in less homemaking and child care in recognition that what women can buy with the money they earn working may be more valuable than what they can produce through their unpaid labor at home. What they can buy depends on what goods and services companies offer; in other words, what employees are paid to do. The goods and services that are produced, the conditions of the work that produces them, and the market relations under which they are offered to clients and customers are all hierarchically ordered. American society is capitalist. The increase of public patriarchy is an increase in the power of corporate managers and the upper class. It is an increase in the power of higher-level men at the expense of the erstwhile privileges of lower-level men. Upper-level men continue to have stay-at-home wives and in addition have women employees, whereas lower-level men have either no wives or working wives and are themselves employees. They obtain goods and services to the extent that the decision-making elite considers the provision of such goods and services to be in the interest of the elite, and to the extent that the men’s wage levels or other statuses permit. Although the benefit is largely to the upper-level men, it is not only to them. The jobs of many working women are oriented to giving â€Å"service with a smile,† making life nicer for men at all levels (Hochschild 1983). Examples range from television entertainers, provided free by advertisers to everyone with access to a television set, to airline flight attendants, provided by airlines to those who can afford to fly. It could be said that under public patriarchy, women are provided as a public good for all men. Poorer men who could never afford homemaker wives may now receive the services of working women, albeit at a much lower level. For example, men in some public chronic care hospitals have their beds made and rooms cleaned by women workers. Women’s benefit from public patriarchy depends on their economic class and their family status. Although women’s wages are well below men’s, professional women’s wages are higher than unskilled women’s wages. Clearly, what can be bought can be bought better by those with more income. The career woman combines freedom and income to a greater extent than other women except those with clear title to inherited wealth. Those who perceive themselves as powerless and fit mainly for motherhood will reject policies and practices connected with public patriarchy. These particulars may be less matters of income and more matters of education and class background. Low-income women may be better off under the programs of the welfare state than under the power of lowincome husbands. Women may get both jobs in the public sector and services from the public sector. Services to low-income people are provided to women as well as men (such as free television or Medicaid hospital beds). Married women at most levels of the class system may enter the welfare system when they become divorced. Compared with husbands, public agencies may be more reliable, more amenable to negotiation, and less likely to become violent while drunk. The increase in working women and the increasing importance of public patriarchy have various implications for men and women. Lower wages and job segregation for women assure the continuation of male domination. Speaking of the relation between women’s low wages in public and their subordination in the family, Heidi Hartmann ( 1981b) says, â€Å"The lower pay women receive in the labor market both perpetuates men’s material advantage over women and encourages women to choose wifery as a career. Second, then, women do housework, childcare, and perform other services at home which benefit men directly. Women’s home responsibilities in turn reinforce their inferior labor market position† (p. 22). Thus public patriarchy continues to uphold private patriarchy even as it undercuts and changes it. Just as women differ from each other, so they share a number of common features almost irrespective of their race, class, and family responsibilities. All women’s wages are lower than those of equivalently skilled and qualified men; all women are vulnerable to stereotypical assumptions about their aptitudes and their commitment to work, in particular, about the potential impact of their current or future children upon their work; all women are vulnerable to sexual harassment. Despite the factors which distinguish women from each other, it is still possible to discuss the disadvantages that women suffer as a group. Minority women are differentially affected by the change. Black men and women have always been subject to a patriarchy originating outside of, and destructive to, their family structure. In the early stages of the women’s movement some feminists seemed to envy black women their freedom from the private patriarchy of black husbands, without recognizing the oppression they suffered from the public patriarchy of white, male-dominated society. For black women and for other minorities, the family can be both a source of oppression and a protection against the worst excesses of capitalism. It has been suggested that there are very likely to be increased opportunities – in terms of both recruitment and promotion – for women in the field of computing as a consequence of its internal organisational shifts. Commentators are divided as to whether the kinds of social and communication skills which are now seen as critical for such work are attributable to nature or nurture, but are united in thinking that we are more likely to find them in women than in men. Women, typically, are seen as more empathetic, creators of harmony as opposed to hostility, of co-operation. The new technologies associated with computers are being hailed or decried as the basis of a new revolution for women. Women’s labor force participation remains high for all ages and marital statuses. But past experience has made it clear that employment in occupations may expand or contract with economic change. There is evidence that the high-tech economy will automate some of the services and clerical work that have been the mainstay of women’s employment. One possibility is that decreased employment will send women back into the home. Housewife† has often been a euphemism for â€Å"unemployed,† and may become so to a greater extent. It is not clear, however, that unemployed women will in fact become housewives supported entirely by their husbands (Bose 90). Private patriarchy declined in part because many men did not see a benefit to themselves in supporting a wife. Perhaps unemployed women will become divorced unemployed women. Perhaps they will become welfare mothers subject to a particularly important part of the public patriarchy. Perhaps they will find jobs in newly developing industries. All of these changes have taken place within a relatively short space of time. There is no denying that women’s employment rights have radically increased in that time. But for all of this, women still earn a great deal less than men (if full-time and part-time women workers are considered together, about 70 per cent of men’s hourly wages). Occupational segregation has remained almost constant to date and women are still concentrated, for the most part, at the bottom of the wage hierarchy. A few women have broken through one or more layers of glass ceiling, but the majority remains in jobs which, however demanding and skilled, pay less than those jobs in which men work. The social division of labor is maintained. Women do women’s work and men do men’s work, both in the home and in the paid work place. Women’s work is low paid or unpaid; men’s work is higher-paid, enabling men on the whole to buy women’s work both at home and in the market. Control over social policies remains in the hands of men. How to cite Women’s contemporary work, Papers

Relation between Leader Behaviors and Subordinate †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Relation between Leader Behaviors and Subordinate. Answer: The path goal theory of leadership is a particular model which is based on the specification of a leaders behaviour or a style which is best suited for the employee and the work environment for achieving a goal. The goal is to increase the motivation of the employees, cause their empowerment and also satisfaction in order to become productive members in the organisation (Hayyat Malik 2012). The path goal approach is based on the expectancy theory which explains the fact that an individual will work in a certain way based on the expectation that their act will be followed by a certain outcome. The path goal style of leadership is the most important process in which the leaders select particular behaviours which are best suited to the needs of the employees. This is also necessary to guide their employees and their needs to best guide them through the path which they need to follow to achieve results (Antonakis and House 2013). In the given case study provided, the employees are experienced and skilled to perform certain tasks which pertain to the needs of the customers. The path goal approach is appropriate in this case as the customers can get services based on their specific demands. Other leadership styles such as transactional style, the laissez-faire style, transformational style are not best in this particular case as the needs and requirements of the case study as different. The authoritative styles are not applicable as the employees need to achieve person specific goals in this particular case. References: Antonakis, J. and House, R.J., 2013. The full-range leadership theory: The way forward. InTransformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead 10th Anniversary Edition(pp. 3-33). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Hayyat Malik, S., 2012. A Study of Relationship between Leader Behaviors and Subordinate Job Expectancies: A Path-Goal Approach.Pakistan Journal of Commerce Social Sciences,6(2).

CHAPTER NINE Essays - Psychology, Behavioural Sciences,

CHAPTER NINE Middle Childhood (6 to 12 Years) MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The work of Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget point to which area as central in psychological development during middle childhood? a. intellectual development b. parental identification c. formation of a personal identity d. development of a sense of trust Conceptual, p. 264, A 2. From an evolutionary perspective, how might group cooperation contribute to species survival? a. It is part of the mating ritual. b. It improves the group's ability to track and hunt for food. c. It fosters more competition among the males for mating privileges. d. It allows more offspring to be produced. Conceptual, p. 264, B 3. How is attachment formation in infancy related to friendship formation? a. Children who are securely attached do not need friends. b. Children who are anxiously attached make friends readily. c. Children who are securely attached are more popular and more comfortable in social interactions. d. Children who are securely attached look for one best friend with whom to share their feelings. Conceptual, p. 265, C 4. Sally's mother used power-assertive discipline techniques, such as yelling and spanking when she was young and continues to do so. Today, Sally is 8. You can expect her relationships with her peers to be characterized by _______________________. a. aggressive and controlling behaviors during conflicts b. avoiding conflict at all costs c. cooperation and mutuality d. hostility, warmth, and honesty Conceptual, p. 266, A 5. Which parental discipline technique is most likely to interfere with a child's friendship formation? a. power assertion b. love withdrawal c. induction d. synchrony Conceptual, p. 266, A 6. One cognitive benefit of active involvement in the peer group is _______________. a. increased egocentrism b. increased perspective-taking skills c. increased emotional control d. increased hopefulness Conceptual, p. 266, B 7. Children who are aware of the variety of perspectives that are present in the social situation are likely to be __________. a. exposed to harsh discipline by parents b. positively evaluated by their age-mates c. more positively evaluated by their teachers than by their peers d. friendly with rejected and withdrawn children Conceptual, pp. 266-267, B 8. Which of the following happens to a rejected child in the process of social skill development? a. The child becomes closer to siblings and extended family members. b. The child comes to expect negative behaviors from others. c. The child has as many opportunities as accepted children to develop social-relations skills. d. The child selects an activity such as sports or drama in order to gain peer acceptance. Conceptual, p. 267, B 9. In middle childhood, children are aware of social norms for peer acceptance. This results in greater pressures toward __________________. a. isolation b. altruism c. conformity d. egocentrism Conceptual, p. 267, C 10. Why are "best friend" relationships important in middle childhood? a. They provide a model for relationships with authority figures. b. They protect children from the peer group. c. They rarely break-up. d. They provide a context for working on relationships in which both members have equal power, status, and access to resources. Conceptual, p. 267, D 11. What is the difference between peer acceptance and having a "best friend" relationship? a. Peer acceptance requires more conformity than best friend relationships. b. Peer acceptance allows more openness and self-disclosure than a best friend relationship. c. Once established, peer acceptance can never be lost whereas best friends can break up. d. Peer acceptance is more important to a sense of well being than having a close friend. Conceptual, p. 267, A, www 12. How does the school environment affect close friendships? a. Teachers decide which children will become close friends. b. The school curriculum emphasizes the importance of having close friends. c. Close friendships are more stable in schools that keep children in the same classroom groups from grade to grade. d. Schools that contextualize learning promote the formation of more stable best friend relationships. Conceptual, p. 267, C 13. Which of the following increases a child's sense of loneliness? a. being outgoing and sociable b. being a target of peer rejection c. being a bully d. being academically competent Factual, pp. 267-268, B 14. Which of the following is a characteristic of children who have strong feelings of loneliness? a. They work hard to improve their social skills. b. They view themselves as socially incompetent. c. They rarely spend time alone. d. Many other children like them and want to be with them. Conceptual, p. 268, B 15. Some children who are rejected tend to be disruptive and aggressive; others tend to be socially withdrawn. Which of the following statements is more characteristic of the aggressive/disruptive children than the socially withdrawn group? a. They tend

Major westen religions essays

Major westen religions essays The three major Western religions that affect almost two billion people are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. All three religions focus on a higher authority, known as God. This higher authority loves and guides people through religious teachings. Studying these religions shows the teachings are sometimes different, yet they all lead to ways of living a more perfect life on earth and gaining an afterlife. Each of these religions began in a different way and during different periods of history. Judaism, the smallest major religion is the oldest religion and is based on Gods revelation to Moses at Mt. Sinai. Later, around 30 A.D., Christianity began with the ministry and teachings of Jesus, who was a Jew. Being a Jew, Jesus never really rejected Judaism. As Christianity grew from Judaism, Christianity became a major religion of its own. The Romans, who were in power during early Christianity saw it as a threat to their emperor, but Christianity began to grow. In 313 A.D. the Roman emperor, Constantine became the first Christian ruler. Islam started in the 6th century A.D., much later than the other two religions. The prophet Muhammad spread the word of God after he had revelations directly from God. Jesus claimed to be the son of God, unlike Muhammad who claimed only to be a prophet of God. Even though Judaism and Islam grew to be major religions, they are similar because they both give rules for the way one should live their lives, rather than giving a set of beliefs like Christianity does. The purpose of these religions was to serve God, but each of these religions has a different view as to Gods purpose. While each believes in one true God, Islam believes that God had no offspring, and has no human form. It also believes that, Life of this world is but a sport and pastime. (Lippman 5). Islam refers to God as Allah. Allah creates, keeps, and can destroy the world and most of all, He ...

Business Plan Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Business Plan - Term Paper Example Other products include the production of irrigation equipments, Co2 detectors as well as bottles. Eco plastic and mould company concentrates in the manufacture of plastic products. It has been in operation in Taiwan for the lasts 12 years. In developing this business plan, the company wishes to introduce a new production unit. Recent technological advancement has ensured that manufactures of plastic use materials economically. Therefore, Eco- plastic and Mould Company provides new plastic containers that replace traditional metal containers. For the last 50 years, metallic containers have been important feature in industries. However, metallic containers are prone rust, require painting, and are difficult to recycle. With this in mind, the company provides drums with same structural strength but of plastic material (Luo, 2014). On the other hand, plastics have an ability to take various shapes through molding. Since plastic products are rust, proof, able to stand diverse climatic conditions, their use in Taiwan captures a wide market. In Taiwan, plastic products have gained acceptance with diverse consumers. The company uses advanced engineering on polymer to produce high impact materials, long lasting materials. Such engineering advances have made it necessary for the production of industrial drum products. The company enjoys a market opportunity for recycling plastic products. Taiwan’s growing population provides great market opportunity for Econ plastic and Mould Company. On the other hand, the greater Asian market provides a wide market opportunity for the company (Miltenburg, 2005). In terms of competition, Formosa Plastic corp. probably is the most competitive organization in the region. Eco plastic and Mould Company operate in Taiwan and within the Asian region. The company began its operations over 10 years ago. It specializes in producing quality plastic products as well as plastic

Paper on the social structural theories then break it down into the Research

On the social structural theories then break it down into the social disorganization theory, cultural deviance theory, and - Research Paper Example Cultural deviance theory asserts that conformity to the existing cultural norms of the society of a lower class results into crime. Youths or lower sub culture class has a set of unique beliefs and values, which are often in conflict invariably with the conventional norms of the society. Criminality in this aspect is the expression of non conformity to social norms or conformity to a lower class of sub cultural beliefs and values. Youth therefore commit crimes trying to respond to their own class of cultural norms in an attempt to deal with the social problems from middle class and adjustment. This theory is associated with labeling theory, the rationale for choosing it (labeling theory), in that they both address a particular class of society and their beliefs. According to labeling theory, the youths turn to a delinquent lifestyle and commit crimes when a good part of the members of society give them a label or associate them with such crimes and lifestyle, hence they accept such l abels as their own personal identity. As youth interact with others in the society throughout their lives, they are usually given various symbolic labels. These symbolic labels often imply different attitudes and behaviors, thus the labels do not only give a description of an individual trait, but also describe the whole person. A negative label often results into a permanent harm of the targeted persons, especially when a significant other confers such a devalued status on the person. Being perceived as a deviant in the society and/ or being associated with a delinquent lifestyle often impact on the treatment youths receive at work, at home, at school, and any other places of social interactions. Those labeled usually find themselves turning to other people who are equally stigmatized by a similar or related label for purposes of championship and support. Law is, in most cases, applied differently and benefits people who hold social and economic power, while the powerless are often penalized. Labeling theory therefore is not only concerned with why the persons engage originally in the acts that make them labeled, but also deeply concerned with the reasons for a criminal career is formation. The origin of acts of crimes is not specifically discussed by this theory (Samuel, 2007). An individual becomes a deviant majorly due to the social distance that exists between the labeled and the labeler. Labeling theory is associated with various effects on the people who are labeled; these are the reasons why youth find themselves turning into a delinquent lifestyle and commit most crimes. They do this with a belief that even if they remain within the law, the society still associates them with such deviances and delinquent lifestyle. Some of the impacts resulting from this theory include the following: Stigma creation: whenever an individual have a public record of acts of deviance, the denounced individual separates himself or herself virtually from a place of group b y a successful degradation ceremonies in a legitimate order. An impact on self image: the offenders who have been stigmatized may probably start reevaluating their own personal identities within the label Primary deviance: these are some crimes with very little effect or influence on the actor, such are easily and quickly

International Terrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

International Terrorism - Essay Example This report stresses that the internal unrest is the best recipe for the global menace of terrorism in the modern day. It can be overcome through the steps that are aforementioned. Also the global community has got its role cut out that will enable them overcoming the turbulence that shows up in one form or the other all in the farce representation of protecting the locals and local land from outside forces. There are still number of countries that are considerably distant from the true democracy. The global community must learn from the past precedence that have prevailed over last few years. This can be done so through number of steps. The first is the fact that the global community must ensure for negotiating the methods through gradual change and through political means. The use of force in bid to oust a given tyrant must be used as the last option. This paper makes a conclusion that the cases of Middle East and few other countries including those in African continent need to be pulled along the lines which will reduce the agent of radicalization. In this course of struggle, the United Nations, along with the various other super powers have got their role cut out and they need to revamp the structural deficiencies. This can be done so through more active and collaborative partnership and participation between the different countries which will enable fostering the mindset that is directed towards self awareness, demanding the basic rights and ingraining the basic concept of human rights along with the democratic norms, principles and ideologies.

Conflict Resolution between Teacher and Parents

Conflict Resolution between Teacher and Parents Introduction From time to time, all teachers will be faced by a difficult and demanding parent. From challenging academic results to accusations of bullying, some parents can be very intimidating or even aggressive. Until relatively recent times, the school was viewed as the realm of the professional, the educator, the teacher. As Carol Vincent states: ‘No parents beyond this point such signs could have been seen in schools around the country, symbolizing the clear division between home and school. She goes on to describe schools as: ‘[I]slands of professional expertise, of calm, order and learning. How we all miss the good old days in the midst of a hectic, stressful Parents Consultation Meeting, when we see the approach of Mr and Mrs Smith, looking as happy as we might have predicted with Johns latest report! Conservative government educational policy, from 1979, was underpinned by the notion of parents as the â€Å"consumers† of an education system, who would be empowered with considerable influence over the way in which the â€Å"producers† the teachers operated, not least by the use of â€Å"parental choice† as a factor in determining which schools would thrive and which close. More recent educational policy, during the Labour Partys terms of office, has stressed the importance of the home/school partnership in promoting the learning of young people. Carol Vincent, quoting a 1986 study by Cowburn, summarises this shift in perception as follows: â€Å"Parents were once kept out of schools so as to allow the professionals uninterrupted control: parents are now being encouraged to get involved, to come into school so that they can understand why the professional exercises control in the manner he/she does†. Communicating clearly, therefore, what we do, what we have done, being prepared to justify our actions by reference to school policy, to educational theory and practice, to the statutory demands of the National Curriculum, for example, needs to be at the forefront of the teachers agenda in any meetings with parents, whether arranged or a surprise encounter. We are no longer autonomous rulers in our own little world, but need, as professionals and experts, to be prepared to explain, or justify, our actions and decisions in language that is accessible to the parent. Situation H or S Heated? In the table above, jot down in the first column possible situations which might generate an ‘interview with parents. For example: report sent home detention issued o praise postcard sent home * In the second column, indicate whether the ‘invitation to meet is most likely to come from Home (H) or School (S) * In the third column, rate the likelihood of the meeting becoming heated on a scale of 1-5, 1 being highly unlikely, and 5 highly likely. Getting the basics right conflict avoidance The importance of the dialogue between school and home cannot be underestimated, and those schools which have taken steps to ensure that their relationship with their parents is a good one, based on mutual respect and concern for the young people whose care they share for at least five days each week will have fewer flashpoints on the level of personal interaction between parent and teacher. Everyone has an experience of school life, so, in that respect, all our parents feel that they are experts! For many, their own experiences of school and of teachers are not particularly good ones: some find entering school premises a daunting prospect, and this unease can quickly escalate into difficult or aggressive behaviour. Many associate their visits to school with negative emotions: they have responded to so many summons because of a childs poor behaviour, attitude or progress that any chance to â€Å"get ones own back† by criticising the school is pursued with relish. Make a note below of skills which you use in the classroom:  · to defuse tension  · to manage behaviour  · to foster co-operation  · to ensure compliance  · to foster a good working relationship A couple of examples are included to get you off to a good start! Skills I use daily:  · Friendly greeting as pupils arrive.  · My ‘no nonsense face.  · Standing up full height to look imposing Which of the above are also useful in dealing with parents? Many difficult encounters can be avoided if the school:  · Has clear policies on a variety of relevant topics e.g. uniform, behaviour, information that is shared with parents on a regular basis. As a teacher, ensure that, in your dealings with pupils, you apply such policies with fairness, consistency and equity.  · Takes steps to involve parents in the life of the school whenever possible the good old school play, or talent show, provides opportunities for parents to cross the school threshold in a non-confrontational context. As an individual, seek out opportunities to establish a dialogue with parents, even if it is only a nod of acknowledgment, if you meet them outside school in a supermarket or in the queue for a plane at the airport! Look for, and utilise, any opportunities to share an interest in something other than the child who is the focus of your relationship.  · Has clear and well established practices for communicating with parents e.g. on behaviour, attendance, progress. Such communication should be timely and prompt, not restricted to key points in the school year e.g. end of year report, and should also inform parents of a childs positive contributions to the life of the school, for example via â€Å"praise postcards†. As a teacher, try to ensure, wherever it is reasonable, that particular parents do not always associate your name with bad news.  · Provides a welcoming environment for parents a cheerful reception area; a cheery greeting from reception staff; a light, warm room in which meetings can take place In many ways, the parents who arrive at the school fired up in defence of their child, or who demand to see a teacher to find out why progress is not being maintained, is less of a threat to the life of the school than those parents who refuse all attempts to initiate a dialogue, to the point that their child is excluded. Parents who are moved to anger by something they believe has happened, normally because their child says so, can potentially become the teachers greatest ally, once a more appropriate relationship has been established. Communicating with parents  · In the table below, in the first column, list the means of communication which your school uses with its parents. There are 3 examples to get you started.  · In the second column, rate the effectiveness of each, on a scale of 1-5, 1 being of little use and 5 being highly effective. Communication Rating Annual written report Grade card termly Consultation evening How could any of the above be adapted to improve effectiveness? What makes a person angry? Anger is a natural part of the human condition, but it isnt always easy to handle. Some people mask their anger. Others explode with rage. Good parents invest a great deal of emotional energy in their offspring: which of us, as a parent, has not been moved to strong emotion by something that our child tells us, or something that they have done, or not done? We also acknowledge the importance of social and emotional intelligence for our young people in school, and many schools are delivering extensive programmes to support this aspect of their pupils development. Since youngsters learn more from models than from lectures, it is reasonable to assume that many of those pupils who have difficulty expressing emotion, or controlling an outburst of anger, are not seeing positive role models at home in this respect. It may be, therefore, that a parent does not intend to show anger or aggression, but has never learned to express concern in a more appropriate way. There are a number of courses which schools can access and provide for their parents, to support them in developing their own emotional literacy, which will not only be of benefit in your encounters, but will also help them to reinforce, and model, the behaviours and responses that you are hoping to develop in the children. The Millennium Cohort Study by the Centre for Longitudinal Studies, Institute of Education, University of London, published in October 2008, shows that what parents are most concerned about in choosing a school in the first place is not only the schools performance, but other characteristics that, taken together, parents rate even more highly the â€Å"good impression† created by the school, a strong anti-bullying policy, its ability to accommodate an ethnic mix, and its facilities amongst others. It therefore follows that these are the sorts of issues that parents are most likely to seek to approach the school with if they feel that it is â€Å"all going wrong† for their child. Psychologists recognize that anger arises for different reasons in different types of people, which may need to be handled in different ways by the sensitive teacher. You may recognize parents that you have had, on occasion, to deal with in the profiles detailed below, although it is highly unlikely that any parent has ever reached the point of hatred towards their childs teacher it just feels like it sometimes! Understanding what may be the underlying cause of parents anger, over and above the particular incident that has provoked this meeting, may help you not to respond too quickly, with mounting irritation, to what appears to be an unreasonable display from across the desk. Types of Anger Disguised Anger These individuals may not, at first, let others know how angry they are. Sometimes, they dont even know how angry they are. But the anger will come out! They look hurt and innocent. They gain a sense of control over their lives by frustrating others. The teacher needs to become practiced in interpreting body language, which may indicate anger bubbling below the surface, just waiting to explode when a trigger point in the conversation is reached. Paranoid Anger This type of anger occurs when someone feels irrationally threatened by others. They seek aggression. They believe people are against them, dont understand their viewpoint or their concerns. They expect others to attack, verbally at least. Because of this, they jealously guard and defend what they think is theirs these parents are often those who say things like: â€Å"My son wouldnt do that† â€Å"My daughter says she has done the work and you lost it and I believe her†. People with paranoid anger give it away it is self evident from their body language, both their verbal and non-verbal communication, that they are very, VERY annoyed. Such parents may often feel insecure, especially in the school environment, and unwilling to trust the school, or you as its representative. Sudden Anger People with sudden anger are like thunderstorms on a summer day. They zoom in from nowhere, blast everything in sight, and then vanish. Sometimes its only lightning and thunder, a big show that soon blows away, but can cause damage, occasionally physical, but certainly in terms of the relationship between the teacher and the home, and to the home-school partnership, that will take a long time to repair. Sudden Anger people gain a surge of power. They release all their feelings, so they feel good or relieved: you, on the receiving end, feel battered and emotionally exhausted. These are the people in danger of losing control: they may get physically violent and, at the least, will say and do things they may later regret. Sometimes, all you can do is simply let the anger blow up, and blow over do not attempt to interrupt or respond until the storm has passed, but keep calm, keep still and make it clear that you are listening. It may even be that the best solution is to simply let this parent have his, or her, say, then suggest a return appointment, in the hope that regret has tempered their anger, and allowed reason to surface. Shame-Based Anger People who need a lot of attention or are very sensitive to criticism often develop this style of anger. The slightest criticism sets off their own shame and since they share such close emotional links with their children, any criticism of the child is felt to reflect badly on them. They feel worthless, not good enough and, like any living creature, when they feel backed against a wall, they will come out fighting! When they feel the teacher is ignoring them, like not giving in to their demands to move their child to a different teaching set, they take it as proof that the other person dislikes them as much as they dislike themselves. That makes them really angry, so they lash out; You made me feel awful, so Im going to hurt you back. They get rid of their shame by blaming, criticizing, and ridiculing others. Their anger helps them get revenge against anybody they think shamed them. Such parents need reassurance; they are good people; they are doing their best for their child; thei r child has huge potential that is not yet being realised because of the issue at hand. Deliberate Anger This anger is planned. People who use this anger usually know what they are doing. They arent really overtly emotional, at least not at first. They like controlling others, and the best way theyve discovered to do that is with anger and, sometimes, violence. Power and control are what people gain from deliberate anger. Their goal is to get what they want by threatening or overpowering others. Firmness and fairness are the best responses to this: such individuals have to learn that he who shouts loudest does not always get what he wants, that you as an individual, and the school as an organisation, does not respond to threats and bullying, but decides what is best in the interest of the pupils. Addictive Anger Some people want, or even need, the strong feelings that come with anger. They like the intensity, even if they dont like the trouble their anger causes them. Their anger is much more than a bad habit it provides emotional excitement. It isnt fun, but its powerful. These people look forward to the anger rush, and the emotional high. Anger addicts gain a sense of intensity and emotional power when they explode. They feel alive and full of energy. You, as an individual, are not going to break this addiction alone but nor should you have to tolerate it repeatedly. If every encounter is the same, this problem needs dealing with at a higher level. It may even be that, in the interests of the health and safety of staff, it may not be possible to continue to accommodate such interviews. Moral Anger Some people think they have a right to be angry when others have broken a rule. They view the offenders as bad, evil, wicked, sinful. They have to be scolded, maybe punished. People with this anger style feel outraged about what bad people are doing. They say they have a right to defend their beliefs. They claim moral superiority. They justify their anger as being for the best, in a good cause. They dont feel guilty when they get angry because of this. They often feel superior to others, even in their anger. These people suffer from black-and-white thinking, which means they see the world too simply. They fail to understand people who are different from themselves. They often have rigid ways of thinking and doing things. Another problem with this anger style is crusading attacking every problem or difference of opinion with moral anger when compromise or understanding might be better. For these people, you need to â€Å"prove† that you are operating â€Å"within the rulesâ⠂¬ : it is not your decision, but one dictated by a policy which you have to enforce. They may not like the rule, but should appreciate the evidence that you are applying it consistently! Hate Hate is a hardened anger. It is a nasty anger style that happens when someone decides that at least one other person is totally evil or bad. Forgiving the other person seems impossible. Instead, the hater vows to despise the offender. Hate starts as anger that doesnt get resolved. Then it becomes resentment, and then a true hatred that can go on indefinitely. Haters often think about the ways they can punish the offender and they sometimes act on those ideas. These people feel they are innocent victims. They create a world of enemies to fight, and they attack them with great vigour and enthusiasm. However, this hatred causes serious damage over time. Haters cant let go or get on with life. They become bitter and frustrated and their lives become mean, small and narrow. Golden Rule NEVER trade anger with anger! You do not extinguish a fire by throwing more fuel on it. Whatever anger type you recognise yourself to be, in the context of a meeting with parents; you are the professional cool and collected. Breathe deeply, switch off your more sensitive self, dont take the insults personally and dont respond in kind, trading hurt for hurt, insult for insult. Learning to read the signs à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬ a guide to non-verbal communication! As teachers, we are generally adept at recognising the subtle signs that all is not well with the pupils in our care; we need to adapt and enhance these, often subconscious, abilities when assessing the degree of anger, or annoyance, or high emotion, in the parents before us. When people are tense or nervous, there are clear visual signals, long before the volume, or pitch, of their voice increases! Their fists may be clenched, or their hands or feet tapping. Their hands may be interlocked, as if praying, and the apparent pressure between the hands gives an indication of just how tense they may be. Their arms are crossed, but they are gripping their biceps. Look at the parents mouth: upward turns in the corner of the mouth are often positive signs, and downward turns, or flat lines, demonstrate negative behaviour. Are lips pressed together or relaxed and comfortable? When the parent speaks, emotion is betrayed by a high pitch, fast pace or stuttering, long before the voice becomes over-loud, or the language abusive. Parents may repeatedly clear their throats. Their eyes evade you. Be aware of these signs of unease, and respond sympathetically; you may avoid the situation escalating into anger. Be welcoming and placatory: listen attentively to their concerns; nod in acknowledgment of what they are saying; feed back your understanding of what they are saying. Offer a comfortable environment and perhaps a drink and a biscuit. Do not approach over-assertively; if you put such parents on the defensive, they will move quickly from unease to anger. One of the most valuable ways of discovering whether someone is being open and honest is to look for palm displays. When someone begins to open up or be truthful, he will expose all, or part, of his palms to another person. Like most body language, this is a completely unconscious gesture, one that gives you a hunch that the other person is telling the truth. When a child is lying or concealing something, his palms are hidden in his pockets or he adopts an â€Å"arms folded† position, for example, when he tries to explain where he was. One of the tricky things about body language is that we are often unaware of how we are reacting to it. We may, for example, form a negative judgment about someone because she slouches, wont look us in the eye or talks with her hands. Because we are unaware of why we made the judgment, we are unable to filter out our biases about what body language means and what it tells us about an individual. Be aware, also, of what you are communicating through your own body language. Be open, physically. Do not cross your arms across the chest or hold obstructive objects (such as your marks register) protectively between the two of you. Approach parents with a hand outstretched in greeting, make eye contact and smile as if pleased to see them even, or perhaps especially, if you are not! Aggressive body language will only alienate, and probably exacerbate what may already be a tense or confrontational meeting. You need to appear relaxed, with an upright posture, and maintain direct eye contact. Rounded shoulders tend to imply that you are afraid or subservient, although a rigidly upright posture can, by contrast, convey inflexibility think of the regimental sergeant major! Drooping, hunched shoulders have the connotation of carrying a heavy burden, and will not create the impression of someone who is confident in the decisions they have made. Beware of using arms and legs unconsciously as a protective barrier. Be aware of overall position: put simply, we lean towards people we like and lean away from people we dont. Avoid gazing at the floor, one of the cardinal sins of body language: if you avoid looking at people, you avoid connecting with them. It will make the parent feel youre not interested in them or anything theyre saying if you cant even be bothered raising your eyes to fake interest, what hope have they got? or perhaps that you are arrogant its rude not to look at someone who is talking to you or nervous and slightly dodgy avoid looking someone in the eye and they automatically assume youre hiding something. Try not to resort to habitual actions which convey nervousness, such as fiddling with your collar or scratching your neck. You might as well have a neon sign hanging round it that reads My names John/Jane and youre making me feel horribly insecure and/or as nervous as hell. Both gestures are signs of doubt and uncertainty. People pull their clothes away from their necks when theyre in a hot spot, literal or otherwise; this may be how you are feeling, but do you really want to convey the fact so openly? And finally, propping up your face with your hand putting your hand on the side of your face and leaning on it could be sending a clear message, either â€Å"Im so bored and tired, I can hardly hold my head up† or â€Å"Im feeling faintly superior and quite possibly judging you while Im at it.† We simply would not sit like that in front of a boss or someone we respected. Your facial expression needs to be responsive to what the parent is saying. Keep your hands relaxed and your voice confident, measured in volume and pitch. Bear in mind that, when holding a conversation, people use certain head movements to indicate that they have come to the end of a sentence and are waiting for the other persons answer. Lowering of the head may indicate the end of a statement or raising the head the end of a question, and a demand for your response. Look for signs of growing â€Å"congruence†: when we are starting to see another persons point of view, we tend to imitate their body language. When a group is in congruence, the positions of their bodies mimic each other, in some cases like a mirror image: when one member of a congruent group changes his position, everyone does so with him. Congruence within a group usually indicates that all the members are in agreement. If the group has two points of view, the defenders of each opinion will adopt different positions; each subgroup will be congruent within itself, but not congruent with the other subgroup. When interviewing two parents, looking for congruent movements may help you to establish who is the dominant partner, and it may not necessarily be the one who first begins to speak: they may be holding the â€Å"big guns† in reserve, to catch out the unwary teacher, who is beginning to think that he, or she, is winning the argument. Manage the situation by trying to bring the â€Å"silent partner† into the discussion at a point that suits you â€Å"What do you feel has happened, Mr Smith?† When those on the â€Å"other side† of the discussion begin to mirror your movements, you know that they are getting on side, and listening to what you have to say. To try to break the tension at the beginning of the interview, to increase a persons comfort when they are closed-off, utilize mirroring; observe the parents behaviour and then, in a subtle way, act the same way they are acting. If their arms are crossed over, sit back, relax a little, and then begin to cro ss your arms. The Managed Meeting The majority of times we have an interview with parents, we are well aware that the meeting will take place. There is, of course, the annual Parents Consultation Evening, or you may have sent a letter home about a disciplinary related incident, for example, that you can confidently predict will elicit a response from home and even, perhaps, that it is likely to be an emotional, or even heated, exchange. There are also social events, a â€Å"Celebration Assembly† perhaps to which parents have been invited, which might also prompt some to request a few words with you in private regarding a long running issue. And, sometimes, the meeting has been suggested by you, effectively a summons to the parents to attend a meeting of crucial importance to the youngster, for example, if there has been cause for a temporary exclusion or a permanent exclusion is on the horizon. Whenever you have the opportunity to â€Å"manage† such meetings, make the most of the opportunity to ensure a good outcome for all parties, and the minimum of stress for yourself. It is, perhaps, worth emphasising that most encounters with parents are perfectly amicable, or may be emotional for them, although not in any way expressed in angry exchanges. It would be a mistake to always assume the worst; your own tension will be conveyed to parents and might be the â€Å"last straw† that tips them over the edge! a) Fixing a Date When a parent requests a meeting in advance, or if you are issuing the summons, think carefully about the timing. Allow enough time to prepare effectively a few days at least. When confirming the time and date, if you are not really sure why the meeting is being requested, politely enquire as to the general topic. Pick a time which you can â€Å"manage† i.e. that will have a definite start time and a definite finish: meetings during the school day are often better from this point of view, since parents will anticipate that you will have classes to teach at some point! However, it is also often the time least favoured by parents, who may work during the day or have other commitments, for example younger children to make arrangements for. If the meeting must be at the end of the school day, make sure that you have established with the parents how long the meeting will last, and inform a reliable colleague, whose job it will be to bring the meeting to an end by â€Å"interrupting†: this could be a teaching colleague, a member of non-teaching staff, even a cleaner or caretaker, reminding you that the room needs to be cleared. Emotionally charged meetings have a tendency to become circular, the tension rising and falling, and can, if you dont manage them, carry on for disproportionately long times, and they are no more effective than a short, sharp, focussed meeting in bringing about a satisfactory outcome. When you have fixed the date and time, make sure that it has been entered into the school calendar. Book a suitable room, if available. Inform the appropriate line manager which parents you are meeting and why curriculum leader, pastoral team leader, senior management. Informing the SEN coordinator would also be appropriate for certain pupils. Make sure that the reception staff know, and will be ready to greet the parents warmly. Make it clear to all how long you are scheduling the meeting for, and make sure that there will be some support for you, should matters become heated or should the meeting drag on interminably and have an â€Å"exit plan† agreed to address these possible scenarios. Use the interim time wisely to gather as much information as you can. Check school records for any information from previous meetings, perhaps with other members of staff: ask colleagues for any tips or pieces of information, about family circumstances perhaps, that you might not previously have been privy to. Do not forget support staff and those in reception, for example, who may have had cause to speak to these parents before. Use â€Å"local knowledge†: many support staff live locally and may know these parents in an entirely different social setting, as neighbours perhaps, and may also have useful information to add. Dont forget the child who is the stimulus for the discussion but beware of appearing to pump for information! Always remember that the child has his, or her, own agenda, and you never know what the little dear has been saying at home that may potentially have already inflamed an otherwise perfectly amicable meeting. Gather together the â€Å"evidence† you may have relating to the meeting examples of class work, attendance records, records of missed homeworks and some comparative information (no names of course) with other class members, photocopies of graffiti, photographs of damage whatever supports the issues you need to put across. Have copies available of relevant policy documents, or previous written correspondence, and a clear note of when, and how, such communications have been conveyed. Make sure that you have carefully read records of any previous correspondence, whether on the matter in question or another: incidents which may appear to you to be unrelated, to parents desperate for a reason to excuse their childs behaviour may seem to provide evidence of a â€Å"conspiracy† at least if they bring something up, you will know roughly what they are referring to! The watchword for your preparation should be â€Å"Forewarned is forearmed!† b) Managing the Environment How we guard our personal space boundaries, and how we enter into the others personal space, is integrally connected with the way we relate with other people. It is important for people to have their ‘own space, and how you manage the space in the meeting room will establish the relationship between you and the parent, and possibly the emotional tone that the meeting will take. Make sure that you have established a â€Å"space† for yourself that you are comfortable with, in terms of the distance between you and the parents, and your relative positions. If the meeting is taking place in your â€Å"teaching space†, this is, in one sense, a kind of temporary home territory for you, perhaps marked by personal belongings, and one in which you may feel comfortable. Conversely, you may see this as a potential battleground, or a territory you want to protect, and feel happier in a more formal meeting room. Each school will, in addition, have its own established practices which may dictate the venue. Arrange the chairs in the interview room before the parents arrive, giving thought to the atmosphere you want to establish, as well as more practical issues. A desk between you and them may feel â€Å"safe† and protective, but also conveys that you feel in need of protection, and creates a barrier between you, enforcing an â€Å"us and them† mentality. The room layout should reflect the home school partnership in action. If you want to have the comfort of a desk, or simply need one on which to gather your evidence, consider having the parents sitting at right angles to you, rather than directly across the desk. Think about the position of chairs, and who will sit where, relative to the doorway in the worst possible scenario, you want to be sure that YOU are the one closest to the door and can leave before they do! This may be to seek help or support from elsewhere, to remove yourself from a highly charged atmosphere and allow â€Å"calm down† time, or to bring a meeting to an end when it has gone way beyond sensible limits, despite your best efforts. In these circumstances, always make sure that you h

A Response to Nilofar Shidmehrs God Existed or Exists :: Nilofar Shidmehr God Existence Essays

A Response to Nilofar Shidmehr's God Existed or Exists Introduction In recent years, scientists have come to the amazing discovery that the existence of carbon-based life in our universe is dependent upon a set of extremely improbable initial conditions. In their article, â€Å"The Anthropic Teleological Argument,†[1] Betty and Cordell lay out some of these conditions in cosmology and biochemistry. Had various initial conditions of the universe been slightly altered, life would have been impossible. Betty and Cordell then argue that the existence of an intelligent designer is the best explanation for the universe. Needless to say, their conclusions have not gone unchallenged. Nilofar Shidmehr, in her article â€Å"God Existed or Exists!† has presented four objections to Betty and Cordell’s Anthropic Teleological Argument (ATA). First, she argues that at best, ATA only shows that God existed, but not that God exists. Secondly, she argues that the dictum that the greater cannot come from the lesser is false. Thirdly, she argues that â€Å"There is a huge difference between having an explanation and telling that there must be an explanation.†[2] Fourthly, Shidmehr presents three theories that increase the chances that the universe randomly evolved for the existence of carbon-based life. Thus, there is no need to invoke an intelligent designer. Given these four objections, it seems evident that Shidmehr believes that ATA fails. In this paper, I will defend ATA against only two of Shidmehr’s objections. I will argue against her first objection by showing that a sound analysis of ATA does give us reason to believe that God currently exists. Secondly, I will argue against her third objection by showing that the existence of God is a good explanation for the initial conditions of the universe. So without further ado: I. God Existed AND Exists! Shidmehr’s first objection is to argue that there is no reason to believe that even if ATA is sound, God would not have to currently exist. Shidmehr writes: If we look around ourselves, we can see several well-designed buildings and goods whose creator or designer had died†¦ the existence of a creation and the continuity of its existence, since it came to being, are not dependent upon the existence of its creator.[3] Secondly, Shidmehr goes on to say that there are several stories we can speculate to account for the demise of God. Suppose there was some sort of SuperGod that was unpleased with God’s creation of the universe causing SuperGod to destroy God.

Factors influencing participation in sport Essay

Some people have very different views on training and the factors that affect them to participate in sport. They have very different attitudes to training. I’m doing climate affecting participation. Some people may want to go out in the rain and train as they may find this enjoyable, but a lot of other people may dislike the cold and wet weather and stay indoors to participate in sport or just sit about. Also the majority of people would rather be outside, but in the warmth, with the sun shining. The country’s climate is a big factor that affects the participation and type of sport that they do, this also affects their attitudes towards training, for example, people in Australia will play more outdoor sports such as windsurfing and skateboarding as their climate is ideal for this type of exercise. Kenya has produced a lot of world class athletes, this is due to their climate, hot and dry all year. This encourages people to train a lot more and also outdoors. Kenya are world class at long distance running as are morocco, this is mostly due to when they train, and what type of weather they train in. If the weather is hot all the time, athletes will train on a regular basis, but if the weather is cold and wet, the athletes will not be motivated enough to go out and train, they will either train indoors or simply just sit around and watch tv or play boardgames. This is the scene in Northern Ireland, and Sweden etc as these countries have unpredictable weather and climates so no one knows what type of day it is going to be. When the weather changes this can change most athletes’ attitude to training. The heat outside motivates athletes to train outdoors. Fumes from traffic and factories, over a long period of time will start to affect the community in which people live in, this will, in actual fact, bring you bad health. The fumes will bring harm to your lungs and make breathing difficult. This means your fitness level will suffer. The environment also affects your performance in a sport event; for example, on a hot day you can overheat which makes you weak and dizzy. And think what a windy day can do to a tennis match, all these factors affect the performance and attitudes towards the training and participation in sport. At high altitudes air is thinner than at sea level, so you must breath harder in order to get the right amount of oxygen to your lungs. To perform well in a sport at high altitude you must first need time to adapt to the climate and the type of environment you are playing the sport in. All types of weather affect the way in which we think about sport. Hot, cold, dry, wet.

A Timeline of the Genocide in Rwanda

A Timeline of the Genocide in Rwanda The 1994 Rwandan Genocide was a brutal, bloody slaughter that resulted in the deaths of an estimated 800,000 Tutsi (and Hutu sympathizers). Much of the hatred between the Tutsi and Hutu stemmed from the ways they were treated under Belgian rule. Follow the increasing stresses within the country of Rwanda, beginning with its  European colonization to independence to genocide. While the genocide itself lasted 100 days, with brutal murders happening throughout, this timeline includes some of the larger mass murders that took place during that time period. Rwanda Genocide Timeline 1894:  Germany colonizes Rwanda. 1918: The Belgians assume control of Rwanda. 1933: The Belgians organize a census and mandate that everyone is issued an identity card classifying them as either Tutsi, Hutu, or Twa. December 9, 1948: The United Nations passes a resolution which both defines genocide and declares it a crime under international law. 1959: A Hutu rebellion begins against the Tutsis and Belgians. January 1961: The Tutsi monarchy is abolished. July 1, 1962: Rwanda gains its independence. 1973: Juvà ©nal Habyarimana takes control of Rwanda in a bloodless coup. 1988: The RPF (Rwandan Patriotic Front) is created in Uganda. 1989: World coffee prices plummet. This significantly affects Rwandas economy because coffee was one of its major cash crops. 1990: The RPF invade Rwanda, starting a civil war. 1991: A new constitution allows for multiple political parties. July 8, 1993: RTLM (Radio Tà ©là ©vison des Milles Collines) begins broadcasting and spreading hate. August 3, 1993: The Arusha Accords are agreed upon, opening government positions to both Hutu and Tutsi. April 6, 1994: Rwandan President Juvà ©nal Habyarimana is killed when his plane is shot out of the sky. This is the official beginning of the Rwandan Genocide. April 7, 1994: Hutu extremists begin killing their political opponents, including the prime minister. April 9, 1994: Massacre at Gikondo - hundreds of Tutsis are killed in the Pallottine Missionary Catholic Church. Since the killers were clearly targeting only Tutsi, the Gikondo massacre was the first clear sign that a genocide was occurring. April 15-16, 1994: Massacre at the Nyarubuye Roman Catholic Church - thousands of Tutsi are killed, first by grenades and guns and then by machetes and clubs. April 18, 1994: The Kibuye Massacres. An estimated 12,000 Tutsis are killed after sheltering at the Gatwaro stadium in Gitesi. Another 50,000 are killed in the hills of Bisesero. More are killed in the towns hospital and church. April 28-29: Approximately 250,000 people, mostly Tutsi, flee to neighboring Tanzania. May 23, 1994: The RPF takes control of the presidential palace. July 5, 1994: The French establish a safe zone in the southwest corner of Rwanda. July 13, 1994: Approximately one million people, mostly Hutu, begin fleeing to Zaire (now called the Democratic Republic of the Congo). mid-July 1994: The Rwanda Genocide ends when the RPF gains control of the country. The Rwandan Genocide ended 100 days after it began, but the aftermath of such hatred and bloodshed will take decades, if not centuries, from which to recover.

The Bonfire of the Vanities essays

The Bonfire of the Vanities essays The book The Bonfire of the Vanities by Tom Wolfe tells the story of an affluent businessman, Sherman McCoy, and how his life enters a downward spiral after a hit and run accident. The Bonfire of the Vanities takes place in New York City in the late nineteen eighties. Sherman is a thirty-eight year old successful bond salesman for a large Wall Street firm, Pierce and Pierce. He is married to an interior decorator named Judy and they have a six-year old named Campbell, who is very precious to him. Sherman is constantly bothered by the stress of having a million dollar loan to pay off for his Park Avenue apartment and by the guilt he feels about having a mistress. Maria Ruskin is a young, southern, attractive woman who is married to an older millionaire. The Bonfire of the Vanities also tells the story of Larry Kramer, an assistant district attorney in the Bronx. His lifestyle is dramatically different from that of Sherman McCoy. Kramer lives in a small apartment with his wife and infa nt son. Kramer, like Sherman, is trapped in a loveless marriage and dreams of affairs with young, sexier women than his own wife, Rhoda. One night after picking up Maria at the airport, Sherman makes a wrong turn in his Mercedes and they end up in a very bad neighborhood in the Bronx. Two young black men approach them and Sherman gets scared and assumes that they are trying to mug him and Maria. After a struggle, Maria speeds away and Sherman thinks they may have hit one of the boys so he suggests telling the police. Maria assures him that everything will be all right so Sherman pushes the accident to the back of his mind. However, a few days later, Sherman reads about the hit and run in a tabloid called The City Light. A drunken journalist named Peter Fallow had gotten word of the story and he made it into a scandal. A Harlem leader and opportunist, Reverend Bacon, has gotten involved in story and turns the accident into a racially motivated attack. The p...

Old Men Pitching Horeshoes by X.J. Kennedy Essay

Old Men Pitching Horeshoes by X.J. Kennedy - Essay Example The four old men in the poem heavily employ the ditch as a field in which they can perform their activities -- in this case, pitching horseshoes. The images of the old men and the ditch itself are quite interesting for they speak of something deeper. In practice, however, the ditch as a human invention is mainly used for controlling flood water. This implies that the ditch, as described in the poem, becomes a world in itself rather than a mere tool for civilized men -- particularly young men. The old men fundamentally alter the norm prevalent in their time and place. In doing so, they create their own universe even â€Å"[d]own the worn path of earth.† Perhaps the â€Å"real† world or civilization that the characters are immersed into seems to neglect the old men’s dignity. To subvert this disrespect marked in an industrialized society, these four men play their game in the ditch as they â€Å"considered dignity behooves.† Moreover, the metaphor of Kennedy ’s poetry can also be seen in the peg imagery. As a marker that defines score or location, the peg as a metaphor represents a system of defined boundaries of roles and all. Society such as a civilized one has its conventional rules and laws that govern the people’s thoughts and actions. In the context of the poem, these rules include the exclusion of the old men in terms of active participation in the social life.

China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

China - Essay Example As assumed by Westerners, the docile population of china follows the dictates of central authority failing that of traditions. Generic Chinese lack individualism with group identification being paramount. It has been found that the population of the middle kingdom has been gripped by fervor for modernization and that they take advantage of contemporary economic opportunities in identical ways. Indeed, most Chinese share the goal of harmony and uniformity and foster the image received in the west. However, intersecting this purported centeredness and homogeneity is an immense diversity of people and everyday’s practices that are not represented outside china. (Susan Debra Blum and Lionel M Jensen, 2002) China’s Population growth Issues In 1960s, there was a threat of mass starvation in China as a result of rapid population growth. This triggered government officials to establish the word’s most extensive and intrusive birth control and family planning methods with an aim of reducing fertility and creating one child families. These methods included provision of contraceptives, abortions and sterilization to married couples as well as incentives for couples pledging not to have more than one child. This program has lowered the population growth in China and encouraged economic growth.

Article Review II Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Review II - Article Example The second topic is the negative impacts that result from implementation and expansion of Medicaid. The third issues covered in the article high are requirements that are needed for individuals to qualify for the insurance. People with a low income can access federal tax credits thereby subsidizing private health insurance. However, those living below the poverty line will not benefit from the health insurance, Medicaid or other tax credits. The instances of unfairness resulting from the policy have been experienced in a number of states. For instance, The Kansas Medicaid program offers no coverage for adults without children (Robert). The intended audiences for this article are the general public, administration, public and private health care providers as well as all stakeholders in health care. The author has involved the audience in a though provoking way. There could be bias in the article as the author is a Republican and this article may be interpreted as a criticism of the Democrat administration. Although the public might blame President Obama for the current woes in health care, the Republicans are the ones responsible for fighting against the expansion of Medicaid (Health Policy Briefs). In the health care law approved in 2010, Congressional Democrats were determined to expand Medicaid in all states. The administration has been urging people who are in need of health insurance to register on the government website to receive information of the available insurance options. The student should be evaluate the current care policies and establish whether they are effective and fair to all members of society (Virginia Gray, David and Jennifer 135). This article is important since it has the relevant information concerning the roles of various government agencies in health care. It provides explanation on the negative impacts of states’ refusal to develop Medicaid. The article spells out the states that are likely to be marginalized by this policy.

Theory of Forms Essay Example for Free

Theory of Forms Essay Definition. What is Philosophy? There are a number of definitions of philosophy given by many thinkers and they vary according to their interests and orientations. Generally, philosophy is regarded as perhaps the most obstruse and abstract of all subjects that seems apart from ordinary life. Although quiet a number of people may think of it as a being remote from every normal interest, it may be inferred that all of us have some philosophical views, whether we are aware of it or not. Most often, the term appears vague for it has been a part of our conversations. Origin. The word â€Å"philosophy† is derived from the Greek â€Å"philia† meaning â€Å"love† and â€Å"sophia† meaning â€Å"wisdom† or â€Å"knowledge†. The literal definition of philosophy, therefore, is â€Å"love of wisdom†. In current popular usage, many different ideas are involved in the manner we use the term. In some cases, philosophy refers to an attitude toward certain activities. For instance, during election, we often hear some people say, we are voting for a certain candidate because we favour for his philosophy of government. In classes in philosophy, the most common question the teacher asks is what the philosophy of student is. The popular conception of philosophy, in spite of many ways we may use the term, is a complex intellectual undertaking. Regardless of the various ideas of the role of philosophy in one’s life, its importance cannot be overemphasized. Parent Science. Philosophy may be considered as the â€Å"parent science†, in that it has given birth to natural, physical, and social sciences. These disciplines continue to provide philosophy with an abundance of contemporary issues, questions, that are seemingly difficult to answer. Philosophy is both independent fro other disciplines and embedded in their foundations and on-going activities. Philosophy as a science. Philosophy has been defined as a science because it deals with the study of the processes governing thought and conduct. It investigates the principles and laws that regulate the universe and underlie all knowledge, which satisfies the requisites of scientific state of knowing. Science has been defined as a body of systematized knowledge derived from observation, study, and experiments carried out in order to determine the nature of principles of what is being studied. Its main concern is the discovery of truth. The difference between the two fields of knowledge lies in the scope and nature of their interest and their approach. While specific sciences deal particularly with restricted field, e. g. , chemistry, philosophy deals with all aspects of man’s experiences. The interest of science is limited to the physical world, while the concern of philosophy issues on justice, conscience, reason, the soul and the Supernatural Being. The science approach to any investigation is establishing and systematizing facts, principles, and methods through experiments and hypotheses, while the approach of philosophy in its object of study is encompassing. Science tends to eliminate the persona factor and values in the quest for objectivity, while philosophy is interested in human experiences, personal values and purposes. Science is primarily concerned with the nature of things as they are, while philosophy is interested not only in the real aspects but alos in their worth and meaning. The aim of science is to observe nature and to control processes, while philosophy criticizes, evaluates and integrates the various dimensions of human experience. Philosophy as a science carefully examines and criticizes the premises and conclusions of all sciences-physical, natural, and social. Some propositions have been made by the sciences which, when examined carefully, may be found too impossible to attain or to prove. Philosophy synthesizes and compares the assumptions and conclusions of the difficult findings of the different sciences when they appear to be contradictory. Philosophy harmonizes and brings the sciences together to complement and support one another. THREE MAJOR FIELDS OF PHILOSOPHY The three major fields of philosophy are: (1) epistemology, (2) metaphysics, and (3) axiology. Epistemology. Epistemology deals with the study of origin, structures, methods, nature, limit and veracity (truth, reliability, validity) of human knowledge. It also includes logic and a variety of linguistic concerns and the philosophy of science. The word â€Å"epistemology† is derived from the Greek word â€Å"episteme† which means â€Å"knowledge† and â€Å"logos† which means â€Å"the study of†. Epistemology as a theory of knowledge asks fundamental questions about knowledge in all its forms and applications of how it is formulated and expressed and communicated. It also looks into the role of sense experience and how knowledge is acquired. Metaphysics. Metaphysics deals with questions of reality-its nature, meaning and existence. The word â€Å"metaphysics† is derived from the Greek word â€Å"meta† which â€Å"beyond† and â€Å"physikon† which means â€Å"nature† from which is derived the word physics, the science whish deals with matter, energy, force, natural laws and processes. Metaphysics is also concerned about the nature mind, self and consciousness, the nature of religion, such as the existence of God, the destiny of the universe, and the immortality of the soul. Aside from the nature of reality and the universe, metaphysics examines time, space, cause and chance. Axiology. Axiology deals into the study of values. It analyzes the origin, types and characteristics, criteria and knowledge of values. It includes values of human conduct, the nature and justification of social structures and political systems and the nature of art and its meaning in human experience. THE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Philosophy has several branches which resulted from man’s philosophical speculations. Each branch endeavours to provide us with useful insights into certain realities. The following are the fundamental philosophical fields of study: 1. Ethics or moral philosophy. This is the philosophical study of the morality of human acts, the search for an understanding of the good life and the ultimate basis of what is good or bad. 2. Metaphysics or ontology. This is the philosophical quest for what reality is in the final analysis. It is the study of beings in general. 3. Theology/Theodicy. This is the philosophical inquiry into the existence of God. His nature and his relations to man and the rest of creation. 4. Philosophy of man. This is the philosophical search for a deeper understanding of what man is and what it means to be fully human. 5. Cosmology. This is the philosophical search for a deeper understanding of the material universe. 6. Political philosophy. This is the philosophical search for knowledge of the ultimate foundation of the state, its ideal form and its basic power. 7. Aesthetics. This is the search for a deeper understanding and knowledge of beauty. 8. Epistemology. This is the philosophical search for answers to the fundamental questions concerning the conditions of knowledge, its extent and limitations. deeper understanding 9. Logic. This is the philosophical science and art of correct inferential thinking and setting forth its conditions. 10. Psychology. This is the science that deals with the science of mind, mental state and processes. The philosophical concept â€Å"psychology† came from the Greek words â€Å"psyche† which means â€Å"soul†, â€Å"mind†, and â€Å"spirit†, and â€Å"logos† which means â€Å"the study of†. To the Greeks, psychology is the study of the soul. Part 2. THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE. THALES Thales was the first known philosopher, scientist and mathematician although his occupation was that of an engineer. He is believed to have been the teacher of Anaximander (611 BC 545 BC) and he was the first natural philosopher in the Milesian School. Thales first went to Egypt and thence introduced this study [geometry] into Greece. He discovered many propositions himself, and instructed his successors in the principles underlying many others, his method of attacking problems had greater generality in some cases and was more in the nature of simple inspection and observation in other cases. Certainly Thales was a figure of enormous prestige, being the only philosopher before Socrates to be among the Seven Sages. Plutarch, writing of these Seven Sages, says that: Thales was apparently the only one of these whose wisdom stepped, in speculation, beyond the limits of practical utility, the rest acquired the reputation of wisdom in politics. It is reported that Thales predicted an eclipse of the Sun in 585 BC. The cycle of about 19 years for eclipses of the Moon was well known at this time but the cycle for eclipses of the Sun was harder to spot since eclipses were visible at different places on Earth. Thaless prediction of the 585 BC eclipse was probably a guess based on the knowledge that an eclipse around that time was possible. The claims that Thales used the Babylonian saros, a cycle of length 18 years 10 days 8 hours, to predict the eclipse has been shown by Neugebauer to be highly unlikely since Neugebauer shows that the saros was an invention of Halley. Neugebauer wrote: there exists no cycle for solar eclipses visible at a given place: all modern cycles concern the earth as a whole. No Babylonian theory for predicting a solar eclipse existed at 600 BC, as one can see from the very unsatisfactory situation 400 years later, nor did the Babylonians ever develop any theory which took the influence of geographical latitude into account. ANAXIMANDER Anaximander (610 – c. 546 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus, a city of Ionia; Milet in modern Turkey. He belonged to the Milesian school and learned the teachings of his master Thales. He succeeded Thales and became the second master of that school where he counted Anaximenes and arguably, Pythagoras amongst his pupils. Anaximander was one of the earliest Greek thinkers at the start of the Axial Age, the period from approximately 700 BC to 200 BC, during which similarly revolutionary thinking appeared in China, India, Iran, the Near East, and Ancient Greece. He was an early proponent of science and tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe, with a particular interest in its origins, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long. Like many thinkers of his time, Anaximanders contributions to philosophy relate to many disciplines. In astronomy, he tried to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the Earth. In physics, his postulation that the indefinite (or apeiron) was the source of all things led Greek philosophy to a new level of conceptual abstraction. His knowledge of geometry allowed him to introduce the gnomon in Greece. He created a map of the world that contributed greatly to the advancement of geography. He was also involved in the politics of Miletus and was sent as a leader to one of its colonies. Anaximander claimed that an indefinite (apeiron) principle gives rise to all natural phenomena. Anaximanders theories were influenced by the Greek mythical tradition, and by some ideas of Thales – the father of philosophy – as well as by observations made by older civilizations in the East (especially by the Babylonian astrologists). All these were elaborated rationally. The basic elements of nature (water, air, fire, earth) which the first Greek philosophers believed that constituted the universe represent in fact the primordial forces of previous thought. Their collision produced what the mythical tradition had called cosmic harmony. ANAXIMENES While his predecessors Thales and Anaximander proposed that the arche, the underlying material of the world, were water and the ambiguous substance apeiron, respectively, Anaximenes asserted that air was this primary substance of which all other things are made. While the choice of air may seem arbitrary, he based his conclusion on naturally observable phenomena in the process of rarefaction and condensation. When air condenses it becomes visible, as mist and then rain and other forms of precipitation, and as the condensed air cools Anaximenes supposed that it went on to form earth and ultimately stones. In contrast, water evaporates into air which ignites and produces flame when further rarefied. While other philosophers also recognized such transitions in states of matter, Anaximenes was the first to associate the quality pairs hot/dry and cold/wet with the density of a single material and add a quantitative dimension to the Milesian monistic system. The Origin of the Cosmos. Having concluded that everything in the world is composed of air, Anaximenes then used his theory to devise a scheme explaining the origins and nature of the earth as well as of the surrounding celestial bodies. Air felted to create the flat disk of the earth, which he said was table-like and behaved like a leaf floating on air. In keeping with the prevailing view of celestial bodies as balls of fire in the sky, Anaximenes proposed that the earth let out an exhalation of air that rarefied, ignited and became the stars. While the sun is similarly described as being aflame, it is not composed of rarefied air like the stars but rather of earth like the moon; its burning comes not from its composition but rather from its rapid motion. The moon and sun are likewise considered to be flat and floating on streams of air, and when the sun sets it does not pass under the earth but is merely obscured by higher parts of the earth as it circles around and becomes more distant; the motion of the sun and the other celestial bodies around the earth is likened by Anaximenes to the way that a cap may be turned around the head. PYTAGORAS (The Mathematical Basis of All Things) Across a span of water from Miletus, located in the Aegean Sea, was the small island of Samos, which was the birthplace of a truly extraordinary and wise man, Pythagoras. From the various scraps of information we have about him and those who were his followers, an incomplete but still fascinating picture of his new philosophic reflections emerges. Apparently dissatisfied with conditions not only on Samos but generally in Ionia during the tyrannical rule of the rich Polycrates, Pythagoras migrated to southern Italy and settled there in the prosperous Greek city of Crotone, where his active philosophic life is usually dated from 525 to 500 B. C. We are told by Aristotle that â€Å"the Pythagoreans devoted themselves to mathematics, they were the first to advance this study, and having been brought up in it they thought its principles were the principles of all things. . . In contrast to the Miletians, the Pythagoreans that things consist of numbers. Although, it is quite strange to say that everything consists of numbers, the strangeness, as well as the difficulty, of this doctrine is greatly overcome when we consider why Pythagoras became interested in numbers and what his conception of numbers was. Pythagoras became interested in Mathematics for what appear to be religious reasons. His originality could be said to consist in his conviction that the study of mathematics is the best purifier of the soul. He is, therefore, referred to as the founder of both of religious sect and the same time a school of mathematics. What gave rise to the Pythagorean sect was people’s yearning for a deeply spiritual religion that could provide the means for purifying the soul and for guaranteeing its immortality. Part 3. THE PROCESS OF THE UNIVERSE HERACLITUS Nature identified with fire. The Universality of change. The logos and Human Nature. Substance that holds everything is fire. Logos or universal reason. Fire is the process of change that which is fed into it becomes something else. Fire is not a random movement but God’s universal reason, the fire that is the unity holding everything together PARMENIDES Goddess. Logical method. What is, is and what is not, is not. A poem that reveals to him the plain truth and the deceptive beliefs of human beings A method that depends entirely on thought and not at all on experiment and observation only that can be which can be thought for. Thought exists for the sake of what is. Therefore, change is the confusion of appearance with reality and therefore change is simply an illusion. EMPEDOCLES Four elements. Love and strife. Earth, fire, air and water were considered as equally original. Love and strife, attraction and repulsion are two different forces at work in nature . Love binds things together and strife separate them. ANAXAGORAS Invisible particles that are the building blocks of nature. A miniscule particles that carry the blue print of everything else that distinguished the mind from matter. Matter is continuum, infinitely divisible and that, however, much it may be divided, each part will contain elements of everything else. Mind the cause of all things. Mind is the principle that gives matter its order. THE ATOMISTS Believed that everything in nature was made of tiny invisible particles or units called atoms Part 4. THE CONCEPT OF TRUTH KNOWLEDGE SOPHISTS’ CONCEPT OF KNOWLEDGE THE SOPHISTS The term sophist (sophistes) derives from the Greek words for wisdom (sophia) and wise (sophos). The term sophia could be used to describe disingenuous cleverness long before the rise of the sophistic movement. In the fifth century B. C. E. the term sophistes was still broadly applied to ‘wise men’, including poets such as Homer and Hesiod, the Seven Sages, the Ionian ‘physicists’ and a variety of seers and prophets. The narrower use of the term to refer to professional teachers of virtue or excellence (arete) became prevalent in the second half of the fifth century B. C. E. , although this should not be taken to imply the presence of a clear distinction between philosophers, such as Socrates, and sophists, such as Protagoras, Gorgias and Prodicus. This much is evident from Aristophanes’ play The Clouds (423 B. C. E.), in which Socrates is depicted as a sophist and Prodicus praised for his wisdom. 1. Sophists a. Protagoras. Protagoras of Abdera (c. 490-420 B. C. E. ) was the most prominent member of the sophistic movement and Plato reports he was the first to charge fees using that title (Protagoras, 349a). Despite his animus towards the sophists, Plato depicts Protagoras as quite a sympathetic and dignified figure. From a philosophical perspective, Protagoras is most famous for his relativistic account of truth – in particular the claim that ‘man is the measure of all things’ – and his agnosticism concerning the Gods. Plato suggests that Protagoras sought to differ his educational offering from that of other sophists, such as Hippias, by concentrating upon instruction in arete in the sense of political virtue rather than specialised studies such as astronomy and mathematics (Protagoras, 318e). b. Gorgias. Gorgias of Leontini (c. 485 – c. 390 B. C. E. ) is generally considered as a member of the sophistic movement, despite his disavowal of the capacity to teach arete (Meno, 96c). The major focus of Gorgias was rhetoric and given the importance of persuasive speaking to the sophistic education, and his acceptance of fees, it is appropriate to consider him alongside other famous sophists for present purposes. c. Antiphon. The biographical details surrounding Antiphon the sophist (c. 470-411 B. C. ) are unclear – one unresolved issue is whether he should be identified with Antiphon of Rhamnus (a statesman and teacher of rhetoric who was a member of the oligarchy which held power in Athens briefly in 411 B. C. E. ). However, since the publication of fragments from his On Truth in the early twentieth century he has been regarded as a major representative of the sophistic movement. d. Hippias. The exact dates for Hippias of Elis are unknown, but scholars generally assume that he lived during the same period as Protagoras. Whereas Plato’s depictions of Protagoras – and to a lesser extent Gorgias – indicate a modicum of respect, he presents Hippias as a comic figure who is obsessed with money, pompous and confused. Hippias is best known for his polymathy (DK 86A14). His areas of expertise seem to have included astronomy, grammar, history, mathematics, music, poetry, prose, rhetoric, painting and sculpture. Like Gorgias and Prodicus, he served as an ambassador for his home city. His work as a historian, which included compiling lists of Olympic victors, was invaluable to Thucydides and subsequent historians as it allowed for a more precise dating of past events. In mathematics he is attributed with the discovery of a curve – the quadratrix – used to trisect an angle. e. Prodicus. Prodicus of Ceos, who lived during roughly the same period as Protagoras and Hippias, is best known for his subtle distinctions between the meanings of words. He is thought to have written a treatise titled On the Correctness of Names. Prodicus’ epideictic speech, The Choice of Heracles, was singled out for praise by Xenophon (Memorabilia, II. 1. 21-34) and in addition to his private teaching he seems to have served as an ambassador for Ceos (the birthplace of Simonides) on several occasions. f. Thrasymachus. Thrasymachus was a well-known rhetorician in Athens in the latter part of the fifth century B. C. E. , but our only surviving record of his views is contained in Plato’s Cleitophon and Book One of The Republic. He is depicted as brash and aggressive, with views on the nature of justice that will be examined in section 3a. 2. Major Themes of Sophistic Thought a. Nature and Convention. The distinction between physis (nature) and nomos (custom, law, convention) was a central theme in Greek thought in the second half of the fifth century B. C. E. and is especially important for understanding the work of the sophists. Before turning to sophistic considerations of these concepts and the distinction between them, it is worth sketching the meaning of the Greek terms. The term nomos refers to a wide range of normative concepts extending from customs and conventions to positive law. It would be misleading to regard the term as referring only to arbitrary human conventions, as Heraclitus’ appeal to the distinction between human nomoi and the one divine nomos (DK 22B2 and 114) makes clear. The dichotomy between physis and nomos seems to have been something of a commonplace of sophistic thought and was appealed to by Protagoras and Hippias among others. Perhaps the most instructive sophistic account of the distinction, however, is found in Antiphon’s fragment On Truth. b. Relativism. The primary source on sophistic relativism about knowledge and/or truth is Protagoras’ famous ‘man is the measure’ statement. Interpretation of Protagoras’ thesis has always been a matter of controversy. Caution is needed in particular against the temptation to read modern epistemological concerns into Protagoras’ account and sophistic teaching on the relativity of truth more generally. A human being is the measure of all things, of those things that are, that they are, and of those things that are not, that they are not. There is near scholarly consensus that Protagoras is referring here to each human being as the measure of what is rather than ‘humankind’ as such, although the Greek term for ‘human’ –hoanthropos– certainly does not rule out the second interpretation. Plato’s Theaetetus (152a), however, suggests the first reading and I will assume its correctness here. On this reading we can regard Protagoras as asserting that if the wind, for example, feels (or seems) cold to me and feels (or seems) warm to you, then the wind is cold for me and is warm for you. c. Language and Reality. Understandably given their educational program, the sophists placed great emphasis upon the power of speech (logos). Logos is a notoriously difficult term to translate and can refer to thought and that about which we speak and think as well as rational speech or language. The sophists were interested in particular with the role of human discourse in the shaping of reality. 3. The Distinction Between Philosophy and Sophistry The distinction between philosophy and sophistry is in itself a difficult philosophical problem. The terms ‘philosopher’ and ‘sophist’ were disputed in the fifth and fourth century B. C. E. , the subject of contention between rival schools of thought. Histories of philosophy tend to begin with the Ionian ‘physicist’ Thales, but the presocratics referred to the activity they were engaged in as historia (inquiry) rather than philosophia and although it may have some validity as a historical projection, the notion that philosophy begins with Thales derives from the mid nineteenth century. It was Plato who first clearly and consistently refers to the activity of philosophia and much of what he has to say is best understood in terms of an explicit or implicit contrast with the rival schools of the sophists and Isocrates (who also claimed the title philosophia for his rhetorical educational program). SOCRATES Socratic Method Socrates was not a â€Å"philosopher,† nor yet a â€Å"teacher,† but rather an â€Å"educator,† having for his functionSocrates to rouse, persuade and rebuke (Plato, Apology). Hence, in examining his life’s work it is proper to ask, not What was his philosophy? but What was his theory, and what was his practice of education? It is true that he was brought to his theory of education by the study of previous philosophies, and that his practice led to the Platonic revival; but to attribute to him philosophy, except in that loose sense in which philosophy is ascribed to one who, denying the existence of such a thing, can give an account of his disbelief, is misleading and even erroneous. Socrates theory of education had for its basis a profound and consistent skepticism; that is to say, he not only rejected the conflicting theories of the physicists, of whom â€Å"some conceived existence as a unity, others as a plurality; some affirmed perpetual motion, others perpetual rest; some declared becoming and perishing to be universal, others altogether denied such things, â€Å"but also condemned, as a futile attempt to transcend the limitations of human intelligence their, pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. † That it was in this way that Socrates was brought to regard â€Å"dialectic,† â€Å"question and answer,† as the only admissible method of education is no matter of mere conjecture. In the review of theories of knowledge which has come down to us in Plato’s Theaetetus mention is made of certain â€Å"incomplete Protagoreans,† who held that, while all opinions are equally true, one opinion is better than another, and that the â€Å"wise man† is one who by his arguments causes good opinions to take the place of bad ones, thus reforming the soul of the individual or the laws of a state by a process similar to that of the physician or the farmer; and these â€Å"incomplete Protagoreans† are identified with Socrates and the Socratics by their insistence upon the characteristically Socratic distinction between disputation and dialectic, as well as by other familiar traits of Socratic converse. In fact, this passage becomes intelligible and significant if it is supposed to refer to the historical Socrates; and by teaching us to regard him as an â€Å"incomplete Protagorean† it supplies the link which connects his philosophical skepticism with his dialectical theory of education. It is no doubt possible that Socrates was unaware of the closeness of his relationship to Protagoras; but the fact, once stated, hardly admits of question. Knowledge and action Socrates teaches that a man must know how to choose the mean and avoid the extremes on either side, as far as possible. In education, Socrates asks us to consider the effect of either an exclusive devotion to gymnastics or an exclusive devotion to music. It either produced a temper of hardness and ferocity, (or) the other of softness and effeminacy. Having both qualities, he believed, produces harmony; i. e. , beauty and goodness. He additionally stresses the importance of mathematics in education for the understanding of beauty and truth. PLATO Theory of forms The Problems theory was meant to solve: (1) The Ethical Problem: How can humans live a fulfilling, happy life in a contingent, changing world where every thing they attach themselves to can be taken away? (2) The Problem of Permanence and Change: How can the world appear to be both permanent and changing? The world we perceive through the senses seems to be always changing. The world that we perceive through the mind, using our concepts, seems to be permanent and unchanging. Which is most real and why does it appear both ways? The general structure of the solution: Plato splits up existence into two realms: the material realm and the transcendent realm of forms. Humans have access to the realm of forms through the mind, through reason, given Platos theory of the subdivisions of the human soul. This gives them access to an unchanging world, invulnerable to the pains and changes of the material world. By detaching ourselves from the material world and our bodies and developing our ability to concern ourselves with the forms, we find a value which is not open to change or disintegration. This solves the first, ethical, problem. Splitting existence up into two realms also solves the problem of permanence and change. We perceive a different world, with different objects, through our mind than we do through the senses. It is the material world, perceived through the senses, that is changing. It is the realm of forms, perceived through the mind, that is permanent and immutable. It is this world that is more real; the world of change is merely an imperfect image of this world. The Forms: A form is an abstract property or quality. Take any property of an object; separate it from that object and consider it by itself, and you are contemplating a form. For example, if you separate the roundness of a basketball from its color, its weight, etc. and consider just roundness by itself, you are thinking of the form of roundness. Plato held that this property existed apart from the basketball, in a different mode of existence than the basketball. The form is not just the idea of roundness you have in your mind. It exists independently of the basketball and independently of whether someone thinks of it. All round objects, not just this basketball, participate or copy this same form of roundness. In order to see exactly what a form is and how it differs from a material object, we need to look at the first two of the properties that characterize the forms. The forms are transcendent. This means that they do not exist in space and time. A material object, a basketball, exists at a particular place at a particular time. A form, roundness, does not exist at any place or time. The forms exist, or subsist, in a different way. This is especially important because it explains why the forms are unchanging. A form such as roundness will never change; it does not even exist in time. It is the same at all times or places in which it might be instantiated. A form does not exist in space in that it can be instantiated in many places at once and need not be instantiated anywhere in order for the form to exist. The form of roundness can be found in many particular spatial locations, and even if all round objects were destroyed, the property of roundness would still exist. The forms are also pure. This means that they are pure properties separated from all other properties. A material object, such as a basketball, has many properties: roundness, ballness, orangeness, elasticity, etc. These are all put together to make up this individual basketball. A form is just one of these properties, existing by itself apart from space and time. Roundness is just pure roundness, without any other properties mixed in. The forms differ from material objects, then, in that they are transcendent and pure, while material objects are complex conglomerations of properties located in space and time. The forms are causes in two closely related ways: (1) The forms are the causes of all our knowledge of all objects. The forms contribute all order and intelligibility to objects. Since we can only know something insofar as it has some order or form, the forms are the source of the intelligibility of all material objects. (2) The forms are also the cause of the existence of all objects.